interface Loading { status: "loading" }
interface Success<T> { status: "success"; data: T }
interface Failure { status: "error"; error: Error }

type AsyncState<T> = Loading | Success<T> | Failure;

function render(state: AsyncState<string>): string {
  switch (state.status) {
    case "loading":
      return "Loading...";
    case "success":
      return state.data; // narrowed to Success<string>
    case "error":
      return state.error.message; // narrowed to Failure
  }
}

function assertNever(value: never): never {
  throw new Error(`Unhandled value: ${JSON.stringify(value)}`);
}

type Shape =
  | { kind: "circle"; radius: number }
  | { kind: "rect"; width: number; height: number }
  | { kind: "triangle"; base: number; height: number };

function area(shape: Shape): number {
  switch (shape.kind) {
    case "circle":
      return Math.PI * shape.radius ** 2;
    case "rect":
      return shape.width * shape.height;
    case "triangle":
      return (shape.base * shape.height) / 2;
    default:
      return assertNever(shape); // compile error if a case is missing
  }
}

type Brand<T, B extends string> = T & { readonly __brand: B };

type UserId = Brand<string, "UserId">;
type OrderId = Brand<string, "OrderId">;

function createUserId(id: string): UserId {
  return id as UserId;
}

function createOrderId(id: string): OrderId {
  return id as OrderId;
}

function getUser(id: UserId): void { /* ... */ }

const userId = createUserId("u-123");
const orderId = createOrderId("o-456");

getUser(userId);   // OK
// getUser(orderId); // Compile error -- OrderId is not UserId

type HttpMethod = "GET" | "POST" | "PUT" | "DELETE";
type ApiVersion = "v1" | "v2";
type Resource = "users" | "orders" | "products";

type ApiRoute = `/${ApiVersion}/${Resource}`;
// "/v1/users" | "/v1/orders" | "/v1/products" | "/v2/users" | ...

type EventName<T extends string> = `on${Capitalize<T>}`;
type ClickEvent = EventName<"click">; // "onClick"

// Infer parts from template literals
type ExtractResource<T> = T extends `/${string}/${infer R}` ? R : never;
type Route = ExtractResource<"/v1/users">; // "users"

// Without as const: type is { method: string; url: string }
// With as const: type preserves exact literals
const config = {
  method: "GET",
  url: "/api/users",
  headers: ["Content-Type", "Authorization"],
} as const;

// config.method is "GET", not string
// config.headers is readonly ["Content-Type", "Authorization"]

// Derive union types from const objects
const STATUS_CODES = {
  OK: 200,
  NOT_FOUND: 404,
  SERVER_ERROR: 500,
} as const;

type StatusCode = (typeof STATUS_CODES)[keyof typeof STATUS_CODES];
// 200 | 404 | 500

// Derive from const arrays
const ROLES = ["admin", "editor", "viewer"] as const;
type Role = (typeof ROLES)[number]; // "admin" | "editor" | "viewer"

interface ApiError {
  code: number;
  message: string;
}

function isApiError(value: unknown): value is ApiError {
  return (
    typeof value === "object" &&
    value !== null &&
    "code" in value &&
    "message" in value &&
    typeof (value as ApiError).code === "number" &&
    typeof (value as ApiError).message === "string"
  );
}

async function fetchData(url: string): Promise<string> {
  const response = await fetch(url);
  const body: unknown = await response.json();

  if (isApiError(body)) {
    throw new Error(`API error ${body.code}: ${body.message}`);
  }

  return body as string;
}